Women have been subjected to violence at all stages of refugee or internal displacement situations (218). Women may find themselves forced into sex in order to gain access to even basic needs, such as food (142, 253, 292). In some instances rape has become a deliberate method of persecution (218, 271, 292).

A recent survey of Burundian refugees in Tanzania found that over 25% of women in the established camp of Kanembwa had faced some sort of violence. More than 150 women reported that they had been raped or sexually harassed since the start of their flight. Relief workers said that women in the other camps also had experienced such attacks but were afraid to report them (222). Many rapes go unreported (52). In Uganda one study found that half of women who had been raped had not previously told anybody about it, even as much as seven years afterwards (271).

The situation among refugees from Burundi in camps in Tanzania may be typical. Burundian refugees tend to remain silent about sexual violence because it is severely stigmatized in Burundian culture. The survivor who steps forward may be blamed, ostracized, and punished; she may be unable to marry or stay married; she may lose access to ration cards. Lack of knowledge of the procedures and laws to protect victims is a further block to reporting violence (218, 222).

Boys living in camps, and to a lesser extent men, also are vulnerable to sexual and gender violence (126, 218, 255, 292). Among the Burundian refugees in Tanzania, for example, an open invitation to come forward with reports of sexual violence produced 10 responses from males under the age of 18 (218).

Dealing with violence. Violence against women refugees is so common that all camps should have programs to deal with it (222). The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) advises field staff to assume that such violence is a problem unless shown to be otherwise (299). To help refugee camp personnel combat sexual violence, UNHCR has published Guidelines on Prevention and Response—Sexual Violence Against Refugees (296).

Recognizing the problem and urging women to come forward are important ways to begin. After the IRC established a project in a Tanzanian camp to reduce violence against women, the number of women who came forward to report incidents of violence increased markedly (12, 218). Since violence in refugee camps often occurs due to loss of traditional social supports, extreme stress, and feuds among refugee factions, camp personnel should address these underlying factors. Also, designing camps with safety in mind, better policing, and increasing the odds of punishment for offenders can help address the problems (299).

In refugee situations where women are subject to violence, empowering women refugees can help lessen the dangers (299). In Malawi, when women refugees became responsible for food distribution, complaints about being forced to give sexual favors in exchange for food largely ended (74). When a women's group formed in a Thai refugee camp in 1992, members of the group reported on incidents of sexual abuse and intervened in domestic violence cases (74). UNHCR now requires that representatives and field officers take into account women's needs in camp site planning (194, 299). These directives are not yet fully enforced, however (119).

Female genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation (FGM), or female circumcision, is practiced in as many as 28 African countries and in two or three countries outside Africa (138, 281). Organizations that study FGM report that there is almost no information on FGM among refugees. Anecdotal information indicates that it does occur among refugees from countries where FGM is practiced (16, 148).

The practice of FGM reflects deeply held cultural beliefs but nonetheless constitutes violence against women and especially against children, on whom it is practiced without their consent (281). FGM is painful, dangerous, and traumatic. Its consequences can be life-threatening for both mother and prospective offspring (138, 166). It cannot be condoned or justified "on the grounds of tradition, culture or social conformity" (299), and it has been condemned on the basis of both the health risks and as a violation of children's and women's rights at numerous international conferences. A network of local women's organizations in Africa has been working actively for more than 20 years to try to stop FGM (148, 166).

In Ethiopia a pilot project supported by UNHCR, in coordination with the Ethiopian Committee on Eradication of Harmful Traditional Practices, has been working with Somali refugees in camps to raise awareness of the harmful effects of FGM. Health workers have seen few complications of FGM since this project began (53).