Tables

Table 1. Infant and Child Survival and Health: Findings from the Demographic and Health Surveys Study, 1992–1997
Table 2. Infant and Under-Five Mortality, 1999–2001
Table 3. Maternal Survival and Health: Findings from the Latin American Center for Perinatology and Human Development Study, 1985–1997
Table 4. Perinatal Survival and Health: Findings from the Latin American Center for Perinatology and Human Development Study, 1985–2000
Table 5. Trends in Birth Intervals
Table 6. Actual and Preferred Intervals, Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–1998
Table 7. Which Women Have Shorter Birth Intervals

Table 1. Infant and Child Survival and Health:
Findings from the Demographic and
Health Surveys Study, 1992–1997
Risk of Death and Health Problems Relative to Risk for Children
Born 3 to 4 Years After the Previous Birth, by Birth Intervals*
  Birth Intervals (in Months)
  <24 24–35 36–47 48+
Period of Child’s Life
Perinatal1 137% 105% Comparison
Group
(100%)		 140%
Stillbirth2 131% 108% 179%
Early neontal3 152% 113% 119%
  <17 18–23 24–29 30–35 36–41 42–47 48–53 54–59 60+
Neonatal4 317% 164% 126% 123% Com-
par-
ison
Group
(100%)		 117% 95% 93% 105%
Under age one5 316% 186% 143% 126% 108% 88% 103% 116%
Under age five5 281% 185% 151% 120% 105% 75% 80% 82%
Indicators of Child Health  
Stunting 140% 122% 128% 120% 93% 97% 82% 79%
Underweight 146% 120% 129% 111% 112% 95% 92% 78%
*Perinatal mortality, stillbirths, and early neonatal mortality were analyzed by year rather than month. The analysis did not separate 4- to 5-year intervals from intervals of 5 years and more. Intervals of 4 to 5 years do not appear healthier than intervals of less than 3 years because a higher mortality for children born after 5 years inflates the risk.

Note: Confounding factors taken into account include the length of the preceding birth interval, sex of child, birth order, mother’s age at birth, survival of the preceding child at time of current child’s birth, type of provider of prenatal care, timing of prenatal care, number of prenatal tetanus vaccinations, urban/rural residence, mother’s education, index of household wealth, type of person attending the delivery, whether the child was wanted, and whether birth resulted from contraceptive failure.
1 From 28 weeks gestation through the first week of life. Data pooled from 18 countries.
2 Data pooled from 18 countries.
3 The first week of life. Data pooled from 18 countries.
4 The first 28 days of life. Difference in risk of death and health problems is statistically significant in 14 of 17 countries studied, p < .001 in all countries except Tanzania (p < .01) and the Philippines (p < .05). A p value measures chance. A p value < .001 shows that there is less than a 0.1%, or 1/1000 likelihood that the difference in risk is due to chance alone.
5 Difference in risk of death and health problems is statistically significant in all 17 countries studied (p < .001).
Source: Rutstein, 2002 (159, 161)

Return to Chapter 1_1


Table 2. Infant and Under-Five
Mortality, 1999–2001
Deaths per 1,000 Live Births
Region & Country Infants Ages 0–5 Region & Country Infants Ages 0–5
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA EASTERN EUROPE &
CENTRAL ASIA
Burkina Faso 105 219
Ethiopia  97 166 Armenia 36 39
Gabon  57  89 Georgia 43 46
Guinea  98 177 Kazakhstan 62 71
Malawi 104 189 Romania 30 32
Mali 113 229 Ukraine 14 14
Rwanda 107 196 LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN
Tanzania  99 147 Colombia 21 25
Uganda  88 152 Ecuador 36 39
Zimbabwe  65 102 Guatemala 40 59
ASIA & PACIFIC Haiti 43 119 
Bangladesh  66  94 Peru 43 60
Cambodia  95 125 NEAR EAST & NORTH AFRICA
India  68  95 Egypt 44 54
Nepal  64  91 Mauritania 74 116 
Source: Demographic and Health Surveys

Return to Chapter 1_1


Table 3. Maternal Survival and Health: Findings
from the Latin American Center for Perinatology
and Human Development Study, 1985–1997
Risk of Pregnancy-Related Death and Complications
Relative to Risk for Mothers Who Give Birth 27 to 32
Months After Their Previous Child, by Birth Interval
  Birth Intervals (in Months)
Indicators for Maternal Health 9–14 15–20 21–26 27–32 33–68 69+
Maternal death 250%* 110% NC Com-
par-
ison
Group
(100%)		 110% 110%
Third-trimester bleeding1 170%* NC NC NC 110%
Premature rupture of membranes 170%* NC NC NC NC
Anemia 130%* NC NC NC NC
Puerperal endometritis 130%* NC 110% NC NC
Pre-eclampsia NC NC NC 110% 180%*
Eclampsia 110% NC NC 120% 180%*
Gestational diabetes mellitus NC NC 90% NC 130%
Postpartum hemorrhage 90% NC NC NC 90%
Note: Confounding factors taken into account include maternal age, parity, mother’s education, marital status, cigarette smoking, prepregnancy body mass index, history of miscarriage, history of stillbirth, history of early neonatal death, history of low birth weight baby, gestational age at first prenatal care, number of prenatal visits, geographic area, hospital type, and year of delivery.

*Difference in risk of pregnancy-related death and complications is statistically significant (p < .05).

NC=no change in risk
1 Includes placenta previa and placental abruption
Source: Conde-Agudelo, 2000 (38)

Return to Chapter 1_2


Table 4. Perinatal Survival and Health: Findings
from the Latin American Center for Perinatology
and Human Development Study, 1985–2000
Risk of Perinatal Death and Health Problems Relative to Risk for
Infants Born 27 to 32 Months After the Previous Birth, by Birth Interval
  Birth Intervals (in Months)
Indicators for Perinatal Health 9–14 15–20 21–26 27–32 33–44 45–56 57–68 69+
Very preterm delivery1 327%* 133%* 103% Com-
par-
ison
Group
(100%)		 101% NC 97% 116%
Preterm delivery2 231%* 115%* NC NC 101% 104% 109%
Fetal death3 240%* 124%* 107% 106% 109% 108% 121%
Very low birth weight4 225%* 123%* NC 107% 102% 104% 115%
Low birth weight5 214%* 115%* 102% 102% NC 103% 119%
Early neonatal death6 202%* 127%* 108% 102% 103% 105% 118%
Small for gestational age 125%* 117%* 101% NC 101% NC 101%
Low Apgar score at 5 minutes 118% 92% 109% 108% 107% 94% 105%
Note: Confounding factors taken into account include maternal age, parity, mother’s education, marital status, cigarette smoking, prepregnancy body mass index, history of miscarriage, history of stillbirth, history of early neonatal death, history of low birth weight baby, gestational age at first prenatal care, number of prenatal visits, geographic area, hospital type, and year of delivery.

*Difference in risk of death and health problems is statistically significant (p < .05).

NC=no change in risk
1 Before 32 weeks gestation
2 Before 37 weeks gestation
3 During the last 28 weeks of gestation
4 <1500 grams
5 <2500 grams
6 During the first week of life
Source: Conde-Agudelo, 2002 (36)

Return to Chapter 1_2


Table 5. Trends in Birth Intervals
Percentage of Married Women of
Reproductive Age Reporting Birth Intervals
Under 3 Years, Multiple Surveys, 1986–2001
Region & Country Survey Period Number of Years
Between First
and Last Surveys		 Reduction
Between First
and Last Surveys*
1986–
1989		 1990–
1993		 1994–
1997		 1998–
2001
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Burkina Faso   55   55  6  1
Cameroon   66   63  7  3
C๓te d'Ivoire     59 51  4  8
Ghana 54 49   44 10 11
Kenya 68 66   58   11
Madagascar   69 67    5  2
Malawi   60   57  8  4
Mali 62   66    8 **
Niger   69   68  6  1
Nigeria   66   62  9  4
Senegal 67 62 60   11  7
Tanzania   59 58    4  1
Togo 56     50 10  6
Uganda 71   70 70 12  1
Zambia   64 64    4 <1
Zimbabwe 61   46 40 11 21
ASIA & PACIFIC
Bangladesh   54 48 43  6 11
India   61   62  6 **
Indonesia 55 46 41/36a   10 19
Nepal     61 60  5 <1
Philippines   67   66  5  1
EASTERN EUROPE & CENTRAL ASIA
Kazakhstan     57 51 10  6
LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN
Bolivia 63   64 61  9  2
Brazil 63   51   10 13
Colombia 62 55 54 49 14 13
Dominican Rep. 68 64 63   10  6
Guatemala 69   68 68 11  1
Haiti     65 66  6 **
Peru 66 61 55 48 14 18
NEAR EAST & NORTH AFRICA
Egypt 66 65 58 54 12 12
Jordan   80 74    7  6
Morocco 67 62      5  5
Turkey   54   48  5  5
Yemen   70 68    6  2
* Some displayed amounts are rounded from fractions and therefore do not appear to add properly. Numbers are correct based on actual calculations, however.

** In Mali, India, and Haiti, the percentage reporting intervals under 3 years has increased.
a Indonesia had two surveys in this period, in 1994 and 1997.
Source: Demographic and Health Surveys (STATcompiler)

Return to Chapter 2_1


Table 6. Actual and Preferred Intervals,
Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–1998
Median Lengths of Actual and
Preferred Birth Intervals (in Months)
Country &
Year of Survey		 Actual
Birth
Interval		 Preferred
Birth
Interval*		 Increase in
Interval if
Preferred
Interval Were
Achieved**		 % Increase
in Interval
if Preferred
Interval Were
Achieved**
Benin 1996 35 39  4 12
Burkina Faso 1992–93 36 40  4 12
Cameroon 1991 32 34  2  6
Central African Rep. 1994 32 36  4 12
Comoros 1996 31 47 17 53
C๓te d'Ivoire 1994 32 39  6 13
Ghana 1998 39 52 13 33
Kenya 1998 35 49 14 41
Madagascar 1997 31 37  6 21
Malawi 1992 33 38  4 13
Mali 1996 32 37  5 16
Namibia 1992 35 36  1  2
Niger 1998 31 34  3 10
Nigeria 1990 32 32  0  1
Rwanda 1992 33 47 15 45
Senegal 1997 34 40  6 17
Tanzania 1996 35 39  4 12
Uganda 1995 33 35  1  4
Zambia 1996 32 36  4 13
Zimbabwe 1994 40 53 13 34
*Estimates based on whether respondents were satisfied with their previous birth interval. If a woman says she wanted the birth when she had it, the interval is considered her preferred length. If she says she wanted the birth later, her preferred birth interval is the actual interval plus the additional time that the woman reports she would have wanted to wait.

** Some displayed amounts are rounded from fractions and therefore do not appear to add properly. Numbers are correct based on actual calculations, however.

Source: Rafalimanana and Westoff, 2001 (142)

Return to Chapter 2_2


Table 7. Which Women Have Shorter Birth Intervals?
% of Women Who Have Birth Intervals Less Than Three Years by Place of Residence,
Education Level, Age, Sex, and Survival of the Previous Child, 1990–2002
Region, Country
& Year of Survey		 Residence Level of Education
Completed		 Maternal Age Sex of
Previous
Child		 Survival of
Previous
Child		 Total
Urban Rural No
Edu-
ca-
tion		 Pri-
mary		 Se-
cond-
ary or
Higher		 15–
19		 20–
29		 30–
39		 40+ M F No Yes %
Less
Than
2
Years		 %
Less
Than
3
Years
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Benin 1996 55 60 59 57 46 73 64 55 49 58 59 73 55 17 58
Burkina Faso 1998–99 42 55 54 56 36 77 61 49 44 55 54 70 50 17 54
Cameroon 1998 60 64 69 60 58 84 67 59 54 61 65 77 61 25 63
Central African Rep. 1994–95 65 67 66 68 61 88 72 62 50 67 66 73 65 26 66
Chad 1998–97 69 65 65 69 64 85 69 62 56 66 66 73 64 24 66
Comoros 1996 62 70 68 70 63 76 78 61 61 68 68 81 66 34 68
C๓te d'Ivoire 1998–99 42 55 53 49 41 78 55 50 37 53 50 71 47 16 51
Eritrea 1995 61 66 65 63 61 80 70 61 61 65 64 70 64 26 65
Ethiopia 2000 54 58 57 60 60 84 65 53 46 57 58 67 55 20 57
Gabon 2000 53 61 63 57 52 87 60 49 49 56 55 66 54 22 55
Ghana 1998 35 46 46 44 41 71 50 40 38 42 45 65 41 13 44
Guinea 1999 48 54 53 55 42 78 56 51 42 54 52 72 48 17 53
Kenya 1998 53 59 55 59 56 81 64 52 38 58 58 71 56 23 58
Madagascar 1997 64 68 68 68 65 84 73 61 58 67 68 72 66 31 67
Malawi 2000 49 58 56 58 48 85 65 47 41 56 57 68 54 17 57
Mali 1995–96 62 68 67 65 59 80 70 64 56 66 66 75 63 26 66
Mozambique 1997 55 53 52 55 47 68 60 49 38 52 55 65 51 19 54
Namibia 1992 46 61 53 59 54 85 63 53 47 56 56 68 55 22 56
Niger 1998 62 69 69 66 53 83 74 63 57 67 69 79 63 25 68
Nigeria 1999 59 63 62 63 61 81 70 57 49 63 62 77 60 27 62
Rwanda 1992 62 66 65 66 66 78 76 63 54 64 67 68 63 21 66
Senegal 1997 57 62 61 60 56 79 66 57 50 60 60 67 59 18 60
Sudan 1990 66 68 66 68 69 85 74 63 54 67 67 75 66 29 67
Tanzania 1996 47 59 55 59 50 74 66 51 45 58 57 67 56 17 58
Togo 1998 40 52 53 45 40 69 55 47 46 52 48 64 47 14 50
Uganda 2000–01 61 71 65 73 65 88 77 63 53 69 71 75 69 28 70
Zambia 1996 64 64 61 66 60 89 71 57 45 62 65 72 62 19 64
Zimbabwe 1999 33 43 42 40 39 74 46 33 32 40 40 64 37 11 40
ASIA & PACIFIC
Bangladesh 1999–2000 40 44 45 43 44 76 45 37 28 42 44 64 40 16 43
Cambodia 2000 55 55 55 55 50 89 61 53 46 56 53 73 52 21 55
India 1998–98 61 63 62 64 62 85 67 51 47 62 63 75 61 28 62
Indonesia 1997 35 37 37 34 41 81 44 31 29 37 35 57 34 15 36
Nepal 2001 58 60 60 63 63 97 67 53 38 60 61 71 59 23 60
Pakistan 1990–91 71 65 65 73 73 93 74 63 48 66 69 79 66 33 67
Philippines 1998 62 69 68 69 64 99 80 59 44 65 67 73 66 36 66
Vietnam 1997 37 53 64 50 50 NA 66 40 37 50 52 75 50 19 51
EASTERN EUROPE & CENTRAL ASIA
Armenia 2000 48 63 NA NA 56 93 70 32 18 54 58 77 55 34 56
Kazakhstan 1999 40 58 NA NA 52 NA 69 36 24 48 55 75 49 32 51
Kyrgyz Republic 1997 52 60 NA NA 58 NA 77 43 24 58 59 84 56 30 58
Turkmenistan 2000 59 75 61 62 69 NA 83 59 28 67 71 81 67 36 69
Uzbekistan 1996 59 64 NA NA 63 NA 77 47 38 60 65 77 62 30 63
LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN
Bolivia 1998 54 69 62 68 51 96 72 55 45 62 61 75 60 28 61
Brazil 1996 47 60 60 54 45 95 62 37 36 51 50 75 49 29 51
Colombia 2000 45 56 55 53 44 93 60 39 26 49 49 56 49 27 49
Dominican Rep. 1996 58 68 70 64 57 95 69 51 37 63 62 74 62 35 63
Guatemala 1998–99 60 72 72 68 54 97 76 59 51 65 71 76 67 32 68
Haiti 2000 57 69 68 66 54 96 71 65 50 64 67 74 64 27 66
Nicaragua 1997–98 55 66 68 63 48 86 67 52 48 59 61 74 59 32 60
Paraguay 1990 55 74 78 68 56 89 74 61 54 66 66 73 66 38 66
Peru 2000 38 58 56 56 38 85 61 42 33 47 49 64 47 20 48
NEAR EAST & NORTH AFRICA
Egypt 2000 46 58 57 48 52 91 68 42 31 50 57 69 53 24 54
Jordan 1997 72 81 70 71 75 97 88 66 47 72 75 85 73 44 74
Morocco 1992 51 67 64 52 50 93 73 59 47 61 62 80 60 26 62
Turkey 1998 42 57 59 46 35 87 59 36 26 46 50 82 46 26 48
Yemen 1997 66 69 68 73 68 95 76 63 51 67 70 75 68 37 68
 
Number of countries where 60% or more of women have intervals less than 3 years 18 35 31 28 19 50 47 15  2 28 29 53 26    
NA=Data not available

Source: Demographic and Health Surveys (STATcompiler)

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